Expert System Industry In China

The expert system market in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the country’s main efficient force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and encountered substantial difficulties due to absence of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western nations in terms of AI advancement. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually steadily established a national agenda for synthetic intelligence development and emerged as one of the leading nations in artificial intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company ought to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI development has substantially impacted Chinese society in lots of locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top markets that would be the most affected by further AI release.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of current existing borders. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law dealing with AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions intended to restrict China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative artificial intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was hard so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further supplying federal government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study projects has actually drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the development of synthetic intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise mentioned in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of artificial intelligence. The very first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event coincided with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial milestone in China’s advancement of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical technology that has actually become a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The document advised substantial financial investment in a number of tactical locations connected to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is a vital element to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year witnessed the introduction of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the requirement for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, as well as public and personal investments. [14] Some of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method consist of the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial transformation, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the emergence of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the guidelines worrying deepfakes, which became efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services security requirements, including specifications for information collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to develop AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors produced with generative expert system to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be important to the future of international military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make basic contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as an international leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s commercial updating and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the international leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to meld state planning and control while some operational flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, creating uneven advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a top research study priority and ranks AI initially among “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing mainly focused on sophisticated and applied research. [38] The government financing also supported several AI R&D in the personal sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research revealed that, while China is massively buying all aspects of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s modern commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and local industrial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private cooperations, and international partnerships and jobs with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI business, the overall approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a huge amount of available data for business and researchers, which uses an essential benefit in the race of big data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of web users, producing big amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most commonly employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its citizens assists more train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D but also uses incredible economic possible attracting both global and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has actually ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft measures specifying that tech companies will be obliged to make sure AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal duty for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language design to the public, business must look for approval from the CAC to license that the model refuses to respond to certain concerns associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries consisting of training data sets commonly utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local business with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to address questions connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, traditional markets in China have actually struggled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional expenses are anticipated to decrease while an increase in efficiency produces revenue development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and lack of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of rising needs for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to develop a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on the usage of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and worries of a broadening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to utilize AI for exploiting large chests of intelligence, generating a common operating picture, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software application, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of limits exist between Chinese business companies, university research study laboratories, the military, and the central government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct methods of assisting AI development priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian functions. To further strengthen these ties the Chinese federal government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI technology from commercial companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information labeling to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly granting it legal access to U.S. innovation and intellectual residential or commercial property. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design usage prohibition for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly considering that China deals with challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research study products. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the number of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially desire to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the first children’s educational program in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI concepts requiring essential requirements in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of national governments have established legislation dealing with data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to deal with brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory framework categorizing all kinds of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to categorize their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI evaluates the proof provided and applies pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach impartial choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business might deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually looked for to motivate private tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to international AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting an international technological dominance – China missed out on both commercial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take advantage of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unequaled resources and enormous untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be sensible for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has actually stunted the advancement of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI produces difficulties for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the risks that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will result in greater injustice of employees and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital build-up and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the primary accountable star in the area of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI dangers intensifying military competition in between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential threat from expert system have taken place. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is generally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI exceed the risks, the highest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% thought it should be by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely used AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang region to detect Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government purposefully using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, especially by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.